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Religious Studies at As and A level

This Page contains:-

1. The Cosmological
Argument

2. The Design Argument

3. Religion and Science

4. Problem of evil

This page contains some information and guidelines to help prepare for As Level Religious Studies exam in Philosophy. This site gives a much more detailed breakdown of what you should know and some methods. It will gradually expand but it should give you enough material to understand what is required of you, to prepare your reading, to guide you in your revision and to give you some exam questions. Hopefully we will then be able to provide some model answers.

HOW TO GO ABOUT THE WORK OF REVISION

Stage 1.     - Select your reading carefully. Always have a pen and paper handy. Jot
                    down very important statements
                 - Highlight useful sections although use this sparingly.
                 - Read a simple overview first. Then gradually focus on different areas of
                     the argument or issue.

Stage 2.     - Make a large MIND MAP. At least A2 size, paper is available from C46
                 - It is good to do this exercise in pairs if you can each providing new
                    information.
                 - The mind map should be in different colours for different material.
                 - Don't waste space by putting a big title in the middle, the centre
                    should contain the main information of an argument or theme.

      Around the centre put the process of the argument. Around the edge put the themes.

Stage 3.    - Use the sample exam questions to create exam essay plans and
                    then do a timed essay (43 mins).
                - This is a vital stage and it brings the other two stages together.
                - At the very least you should make detailed essay plans and try to
                   cover every eventuality.

THIS IS WHERE YOU WILL SCORE HIGHER MARKS.....

PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT!

Some thoughts on Critical thinking/Evaluation

One of the main skills that is examined at A level is the skill of Critical Thinking or Critical Reasoning. I have put together some simple ideas upon this and you can use this to help you. Critical analysis or reasoning is crucial for EVALUATION in As level and even more so at A2 level. Mastery of this skill will provide the framework upon which high quality essays can be built. Besides my own material you might like to look at a very simple site for advice on EVALUATION. The following should help:-

http://commhum.mccneb.edu/argument/summary.htm

AN OUTLINE OF WHAT YOU MUST KNOW..........

The Existence of GOD - a good introduction -

http://www-phil.tamu.edu/~gary/intro/philofreligion.html

1. The Cosmological argument for the Existence of God.

This is a very simple argument really. It is an a posteriori (as opposed to a priori) argument i.e based upon evidence or experience - the experience of the existence of the universe. Basically it claims that the universe cannot be explained without the existence of God. It makes a major assumption that the universe had a cause and that cause is God. It makes other assumptions - that there cannot be an infinite regress of causes, that the universe is finite and that we need a sufficient cause ofr the universe to come into existence. It is directly related to is sister argument the design argument. Both of these arguments then give a religious interpretation of the universe as opposed to a pure scientific or atheistic version. (see Religion and Science)

	Aristotle and the background of the argument. The argument by Aquinas in "Summa Theologicae" (The FIVE WAYS) This means The argument from MOTION, the argument from CAUSE and the Argument from CONTINGENCY. (you do not need to know no. 4 and no. 5 is the design argument - see below)
	The main focus of these arguments. The rejection of Infinite Regress; The notion of an Uncaused Cause (Unmoved mover); Leibniz The principle of sufficient reason (Blue book)
	The KALAM argument as proposed by Al Ghazali (12th Cent.) and recently William Craig. Both are very well described in the Blue book and in Reason and Religious Belief.
	The problems involved in the Kalam argument. Does everything that begins to exist have a cause. (see the article by Quentin Smith about Cosmology that we discussed under Religion and Science)
	Arguments generally against the Cosmological argument, Russell - Quantifier Shift Fallacy. Hume and Russell - The universe does not need explaining. No need for a first cause. - Universe infinitely changes. Problems with "uncaused" cause?
	Immanuel Kant rejection of the Argument. Anthony Kenny's Rejection (see the blue book and Davies)
	You should be aware of the inductive, a posteriori nature of the argument and that it cannot entirely work. You should be aware that the argument never fails completely since it must remain ALWAYS possible that God is the Creator. However this is not proof.

Helpful Sites:-

http://www.faithnet.org.uk/fiveways.htm Obvious

http://www.faithnet.org.uk/cosmologicalargument.htm Follow up

http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aquinas.htm#Life

http://www.geocities.com/Athens/8160/aquin.htm

The best things to read:

1.    John Hick     Chap 2 "Grounds For Belief in God"   from Philosophy of Religion
2.    Jordan, Lockyer and Tate Philosophy of Religion for A level Chapter 5
3.    Peter Cole    Chapter    3    Phil. of Rel. Access Series
4.    Brian Davies. Intro to Phil. of Rel. Chapter.
5.    Peter Vardy "Puzzle of God" Chapter 8 (photocopy)
6.    Reason and Religious Belief. Hasker etc.

2. The Design or Teleological Argument

This is a the oldest and most familiar argument and stems from Greek Philosophy. The apparent order and working of the universe had to be explained and could not be simply explained as mere accident. As knowledge of the universe expanded it became even more obvious that it was very intricate and would become perfect. This was the philosophy of the Greeks and later Aquinas. By the 17th and 18th centuries Newton's Laws were considered the basis of the working of the universe and it was generally felt that the universe could be explained fully in mathematical terms. Thus, it became very clear that the universe was like a machine. Hence the ANALOGICAL form of the argument which was dismissed by David Hume but later revived by William Paley. In the end this argument was laid to rest not by philosophy but by DARWIN and evolution. However a new Design argument, sometimes called the INDUCTIVE argument or the ANTHROPIC principle, grew which made the most of 20th Century science. This argument found great strength in the writing of F. R. Tennant

What you need to know

	The Classical argument, Design qua Regularity, Design qua purpose (The Blue Book)
	The main scholars Aquinas, (the fifth way) William Paley, (Natural Theology).
	The main objections to the design argument by David Hume. Analogy, No basis of comparison, why God?, Universe is unique, who designs God?, can order be explained otherwise. etc. (The Pamphlet by Peter Cole or the essay from Philosophy of Religion by Cole in the Access Series (the grey book)
	Some answers to David Hume. This is by far the best in Davies which you should have as a photocopy.
	Some thoughts about Order Immanuel Kant (The blue book)
	The main problems with the Design Argument - ORDER is not provable - Evident order can be otherwise explained - Darwin and evolution - The designer God is a "God of the Gaps"

The best sources of information for revision are as follows:-

1.    John Hick   Chap "Grounds For Belief in God"   from Philosophy of Religion
2.    Jordan, Lockyer and Tate Philosophy of Religion for A level Chapter 6
3.    Peter Cole    Chapter         Phil. of Rel. Access Series
4.    Peter Vardy "Puzzle of God", Chapter The design Argument

You have access to all of these as photocopies. Also you might like to try:-

http://www.philosophyonline.co.uk/pages/teleological.htm#

http://www.faithnet.org.uk/designargument.htm

3. Religion and Science

This was a major area of study for us in which we covered a great deal of modern science and the implications of the studies in Quantum Mechanics, Physics, Maths, Biology, Genetics upon Religious Beliefs. The problems with so much information is that it is difficult to condense. I would suggest therefore that you use your reading material very carefully to answer these main questions:-

	What were the major areas of conflict between Religion and Science up to the 20th Cent.
	What, if anything, remains of these areas of conflict.....have they been resolved
	What areas of conflict are there now especially in differences of methods and views of the world?
	Are Religion and Science simply different world views that co exist with a sort of tension between them, are they compatible, or is there real and irreconcilable conflict between them...i.e. they are incompatible often meaning that religion is regarded as the weaker one?

These questions will be the basis of questions in the exam. You need to know that people like Stephen Hawkins and Quentin Smith think that Religion is unnecessary, Keith Ward and others think that religion and Science are compatible.

Read in the following order

1.     Jordan, Lockyer & Tate Blue Book.   Chapter 10
2.     W. Abraham   Chapter 16   from "Intro. to Phil of Rel." Photocopy
3.     The Religion and Science book "Access Series"

This is where a MIND MAP is essential. It will help you connect the various parts together.

Also look at......

http://www.faithnet.org.uk/religionscienceorigin.htm

It is very good and will help you plan answers to As questions but it will take you a while to read it.

4. The Problem of Evil

This problem crosses the border between philosophy and theology. It is both a philosophical problem involving an inherent contradiction between the concept of God and presence of evil and suffering in the world and a real problem in that evil is experienced by all. These two aspects are sometimes referred to as the "logical problem" and the "evidential problem". For the purposes of study a distinction must be drawn between Moral Evil and Non-Moral Evil (Natural). However it soon becomes obvious that this distinction is blurred in some cases (e.g. AIDS) and that all suffering is, in the end, a matter for theology.

Please remember that THEODICY is strictly the attempt of religion to justify God's goodness and/or presence in the face of evil. i.e. it attempts to answer the question "why does God permit evil and suffering?"

What you need to know:-

The nature of the problem. This is put very clearly in all the text books but it is expressed at its best in two places "Reason and Religious Belief Text book and the following website which you should have already seen:-
http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/evil.html

On your Mind Map you should clearly state the problem (both LOGICAL and EVIDENTIAL) at the centre. Around this you should give various explanations of the problem that you have read and the reasons for the distinction between moral and non moral.

	The Free Will Defence. This is basic to all theodicy. It is clearly that in order to have free moral choice there must be the possibility of a being doing right and possibly benefiting from it or doing wrong in equal measure and suffering the consequences. Christianity maintains that God could either create beings who would simply love him because they had to or beings that would learn to love him and whom he could love. This is well written about. It is challenged by Mackie. This needs to be understood clearly as a logical challenge. Mackie's challenge is refuted by A. Plantinga and John Hick. In the end it does not solve the problem of natural pain and suffering.
	The Augustinian Theodicy. Based on the Genesis account of "The Fall". Augustine centre's the argument on Freewill and the consequence of disobedience. It is the classic Christian Doctrine but it has serious faults philosophically.
	The problems of this theodicy. Read Hick and your main texts books carefully on this and summarise them as bullet points on your mind map. Make sure you identify who says what. Can the Aug. theodicy survive these objections? This is important for evaluation purposes
	The Irenaean Theodicy. This theodicy is based upon the short work of Irenaeas who was writing about 200 years before Augustine. Irenaeas was what is know as an Early church Father, he wrote various letters and acted as a bishop would today. He based his ideas on the fact that we need a world in which to grow as the "children of God" morally and spiritually. Therefore God could not have created a perfect world but in which this would be possible. This theodicy has been taken p most famously by Hock in his book "Evil and the God of Love" published about 40 years ago.
	Read Hick's restatement of the theodicy and Richard Swinburne if you can. They a clearly discussed in your texts. The creation of a " free world" which is the best possible world.
	The problems of this theodicy. It's reliance on life after death as a balance, its failure to address the evidential problem.

Books to research

1. John Hick Philosophy of Religion Chap   "Problem of Evil Excellent
2. Peter Vardy   " The Puzzle of Evil" Various parts
3. Jordan, Lockyer and Tate The Blue book relevant chapter
4. Peter Cole   The pamphlet
5. Peter Cole "Philosophy of Religion" Access Series

Sites:-

http://www.faithnet.org.uk/theodicyintro.htm This is brilliant........

Frankly I can't think that you need any more. If you have got this far you have done really well!

The next stage is to experiment with some exam questions:-

These will come later ....in the meantime use the two papers that you have and be imaginative!